From Clothes to Skin: Chemical Safety in Ultra-Fast Fashion and Luxury Brands’ Clothes

Author: Rita Dominici

Abstract

This literature review explores the presence and associated health risks of hazardous chemicals in clothing, with a particular focus on dermal exposure. It investigates the potential health effects of skin contact with toxic substances in garments and whether clothing sold from fast fashion brands and luxury brands contain different levels of chemicals. It emerged that chemicals such as aromatic amines, bisphenol A (BPA), phthalates, and PFAS are commonly found in textiles and have been linked to serious health issues, particularly when skin is exposed to them (Rovira and Domingo, 2019). This review also compares two Greenpeace investigations, one on ultra-fast fashion brand SHEIN and the other on various luxury brands, highlighting that both types of garments can contain harmful substances (Brigden et al., 2014; Cobbing, Wohlgemuth and Panhuber, 2022). It suggests that the issue is widespread across the entire fashion industry. Therefore, stronger regulation, improved transparency, and further scientific research on chemical safety in textiles are needed.

Introduction

Textiles, and therefore clothing, are an essential part of our daily lives, and the processes involved in transforming raw fibers into finished garments are complex and chemically intensive (Avagyan et al, 2015). Whether derived from natural sources such as cotton or wool, or synthetically produced in factories, textile materials go through numerous stages of treatment and finishing that rely on a wide variety of chemical substances (Fransson and Molander, 2012). On one hand, pesticides, fungicides and biocides are used in the cultivation process of natural fibers, on the other hand, chemicals such as dyes, flame retardants, plasticizers, antibacterial agents, antistatic agents and antioxidants are employed in the production of synthetic fibers (Avagyan et al, 2015; Chen et al., 2022) These and other additives are introduced during the different phases of the manufacturing process such as spinning, dyeing, printing and finishing, with the aim to enhance the performance of these textiles for specific uses (Chen et al., 2022). While these substances provide better functionality, appearance, and durability of fabrics, such as wrinkle resistance or water repellency, they also raise serious concerns for both environmental sustainability and public health (Avagyan et al, 2015).

The widespread use of hazardous chemicals in textile manufacturing has long been recognized as a significant source of pollution, with dyes being among the most common contaminants found in textile wastewater (Rovira and Domingo, 2019). Yet, the risks lie even beyond the production phase. Although much of the existing scientific literature has focused on occupational exposure during manufacturing, growing attention is being paid to the risks faced by final consumers, particularly through dermal exposure. Hence, many textiles retain residues of harmful substances that can be released during regular wear, posing risks through direct skin contact, inhalation of microfibers, or even indirect ingestion (Rovira and Domingo, 2019). While certain forms of human exposure to toxins, such as ingestion or inhalation, are the most studied, potential risks linked to skin contact with chemically treated clothes have received less attention.

This literature review aims to examine current scientific knowledge on the presence and health effects of toxic chemicals in clothing. Therefore, the two research questions are: “What are the potential health risks associated with dermal exposure to toxic chemicals present in clothing?” and “Are garments sold by luxury brands safer than those sold by fast fashion brands in terms of hazardous chemicals?”

Method and material

The 22 studies cited in the article were identified using Google Scholar as the main search engine, as well as consulting the reference list of the selected articles to further deepen my research. The search process included a range of keywords related to both the social and chemical dimensions of clothing and textiles, including “chemicals in clothes”, “hazardous chemicals in clothes”, “toxins in fast fashion”, “chemicals in luxury” and “clothes dermal exposure”. The studies vary significantly in scope, with some rooted in chemical analysis while others focus on absorption of hazardous chemicals through the contact of clothes with the skin. These studies often rely on laboratory methods to analyze how specific substances behave when in contact with human skin. The second part of this review aims to examine the presence of hazardous chemicals in garments produced through specific supply chains, a research topic that appears to be less developed. For this reason, only two such studies were included in the article. Both were conducted by Greenpeace and involved testing the chemical content of clothing items. One focused on garments sold by ultra-fast fashion brands, particularly SHEIN, while the other examined clothing items from various luxury brands. Nevertheless, their inclusion provides an insight into a relatively underexplored but important aspect of the issue, trying not only to understand the consequences of exposure to these substances through garments, but also to investigate whether there are differences in the types and levels of chemicals found in items sold by ultra-fast fashion brands such as SHEIN compared to those in designer clothing from luxury labels.

Chemicals in clothes: health risks from skin

The textile industry relies heavily on a wide range of chemical treatments to enhance fabric quality, improve durability, and achieve specific aesthetic effects. Even if many of these chemicals are washed out before the clothes reach stores, not all of them disappear, thus, some residues remain in the fabric and can be released when we wear the clothes, especially when they come into direct contact with our skin (Rovira and Domingo, 2019).

Among the various toxic pollutants found in textiles, particular emphasis is on aromatic amines (AAs). These substances can be released under certain conditions from azo dyes: a widely used class of synthetic dyes in the textile industry (Brigden et al., 2014). As summarized by Platzek (2010), exposure to aromatic amines through consumer products can lead to serious health risks, primarily due to the mutagenic and/or carcinogenic nature of certain AAs. The harmful effects of these chemicals are closely linked to producing certain substances capable of causing damage to DNA and proteins (Brüschweiler and Merlot, 2017). In response, countries including EU member states and China have implemented regulations banning the sale of textiles that may release carcinogenic amines above certain thresholds when in contact with the skin. EU regulations currently restrict 22 specific amines with a maximum limit of 30 mg/kg (EU, 2002), while Chinese regulations are even stricter, setting a limit of 20 mg/kg and including two additional compounds (Bridgen et al., 2014).

Beyond azo dyes, there are other chemicals found in textiles that raise serious health concerns. These include Bisphenol A (BPA), which is another particularly concerning compound. Commonly discussed in the context of plastics, BPA is also present in textiles, especially those with printed designs or made from synthetic fibers (Herrero et al., 2023). BPA can be introduced during textile production both as a component of dyes and antioxidants and as an additive in polyester to improve colorfastness, antistatic properties, and moisture control (Xue et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2019; Undas et al., 2023, as cited in Herrero et al., 2023). Its presence in clothing can become hazardous with prolonged contact with the skin, which increases the risk of dermal absorption -particularly for sensitive populations such as pregnant women and children (Herrero et al., 2023). Exposure to BPA has been associated with a variety of adverse health outcomes. In children, both prenatal and postnatal exposure has been linked to behavioral disorders, asthma, obesity, immune system dysfunctions, hormonal disturbances, and altered pubertal development (Herrero et al., 2023). In adults, elevated BPA levels have been connected to breast and prostate cancer, metabolic disorders, and diabetes (Chen et al., 2016; Freire et al., 2019). Furthermore, BPA analogs like bisphenol S (BPS) and bisphenol F (BPF) may have endocrine-disrupting effects that are equal to or even greater than those of BPA itself (Herrero et al., 2023).

Other chemicals used on clothing that can cause harm are phthalates: chemicals used to soften plastics and often found in printed clothes. For this reason, it is important to consider that the final consumers of textiles containing printed PVC are often children, who are a group particularly vulnerable to endocrine-disrupting compounds due to their stage of development (Martínez et al., 2018). The review by Caldwell (2012) adds to these concerns by highlighting new findings on these substances, including their potential to cause chromosomal damage, accelerate cancer progression, and alter gene expression, even at lower concentrations. PFAS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances), APEOs (alkylphenol polyethoxylates), and NPEs are other chemicals commonly used during the production process with the aim of enhancing softness, smoothness, and water resistance (Chen et al., 2022). However, PFAS have become a major environmental concern due to their persistence and low degradability. Substances like PFOS (Perfluorooctanesulfonate) and PFOA, have been linked to serious health risks, including effects on fertility, hormonal disruption, and childhood obesity. PFAS concentrations have been found in various textiles regardless of fiber type, with higher levels observed in polyester than in nylon (Chen et al., 2022). Formaldehyde is another chemical of concern in the textile industry. Traditionally used to improve anti-creasing properties, compounds that release formaldehyde have been associated with eye, nose, and throat irritation, allergic skin reactions, and even cancer, as classified by the IARC (Group 1) (Cobbing, Wohlgemuth and Panhuber, 2022). Although modern finishing techniques release lower amounts of formaldehyde, elevated levels have still been found in certain garments (Rovira and Domingo, 2019).

Beyond the chemicals briefly discussed, a wide range of other hazardous chemicals are also present in textile products. These include heavy metals such as lead and cadmium, nickel (a known allergen), and flame retardants, all of which can be absorbed through skin contact. These substances can contribute to systemic health risks and should not be overlooked in risk assessments concerning dermal exposure to garments.

Finally, after this brief overview of some of the chemicals used in clothing production and the effects of their contact with the skin, the following paragraphs will explore in more depth the relationship between the use of these additives and the production of ultra-fast fashion and luxury brand garments.

Chemical usage in clothes: ultra-fast fashion vs. luxury brands

The fast fashion industry has long been criticized for its high-volume, high-speed production cycles, and for the harsh environmental and social consequences produced by its business model. However, the phenomenon of ultra-fast-fashion brands has appeared in recent years (Cobbing, Wohlgemuth and Panhuber, 2022). This model goes beyond fast-fashion production in speed and scale, with suppliers expected to deliver goods within just 3 to 7 days, which are then shipped directly to global consumers via air shipment. Such logistics are environmentally damaging and linked to violations of labor and regulatory frameworks (Cobbing, Wohlgemuth and Panhuber, 2022).

To investigate the risks linked to this model of production and the use of chemicals in the clothes, Greenpeace conducted a chemical analysis of 47 garments purchased from SHEIN platforms in Austria, Germany, Italy, Spain, and Switzerland, as well as from a temporary store in Munich. The tests, carried out by an independent laboratory, revealed alarming levels of hazardous chemicals, ignoring EU safety regulations and raising serious concerns about the companies’ violations of consumer safety and environmental regulations (Cobbing, Wohlgemuth and Panhuber, 2022).
The garments were tested for a broad spectrum of toxic substances, including formaldehyde, phthalates, heavy metals, PFAS, and aromatic amines from azo dyes. The results confirmed that several items contained illegal levels of harmful chemicals, posing potential threats to workers in the supply chain and communities living near manufacturing sites, where these pollutants may be discharged into the air and water, and final consumers, through indirect digestion, inhalation and skin contact (Cobbing, Wohlgemuth and Panhuber, 2022).

This issue is not limited to Europe. In Canada, an independent investigation found that 1 in 5 items of clothing from three fast fashion retailers, Zaful, AliExpress, and SHEIN, contained high levels of toxic chemicals. The latter’s garments contained dangerous levels of substances such as lead, PFAS, and phthalates (CBC, 2021). In one shocking case, a toddler’s jacket sold by SHEIN contained lead levels 20 times higher than Canada’s legal limit. The Swedish Chemicals Agency (2013) has also warned of the increased risk associated with purchasing goods from non-EU-based online vendors, noting the difficulty in monitoring chemical compliance when companies operate without physical presence within the EU (KEMI, 2016). Efforts such as the EU Safety Gate system and the voluntary Product Safety Pledge+ aim to improve accountability among online marketplaces. Major platforms like Amazon have signed on, but SHEIN remains absent from these initiatives, raising further concerns about its commitment to consumer safety (European Union, 2023).
It was only in 2023 that SHEIN made public its Restricted Substances List (RSL) and Manufacturing Restricted Substances List (MRSL), -documents that outline hazardous chemicals and the regulatory limits that must be followed both within the EU and internationally. Despite these improvements, full transparency has not yet been achieved. For example, the company still does not publish a suppliers list, which would need to include its wet processing suppliers, where hazardous chemicals are most intensively used, even though such a list appears to exist, (Cobbing, Wohlgemuth and Panhuber, 2022).

A similar investigation was conducted, this time focusing on garments produced by luxury brands. Bridgen, Hetherington, Wang, Santillo and Johnston (2014) analyzed 27 luxury clothing and footwear items from major brands such as Dior, Dolce&Gabbana, Armani, Hermès, Louis Vuitton, Marc Jacobs, Trussardi, and Versace. These products were purchased in nine different countries or regions between May and June 2013 and were reportedly manufactured in at least seven different countries, although the country of origin for five items could not be identified. The chemical screening focused on a range of hazardous substances, including nonylphenol ethoxylates, carcinogenic amines released under reducing conditions, phthalates, organotins, per- and polyfluorinated chemicals, and antimony.

Findings confirm the presence of multiple hazardous substances in luxury textile and footwear products, either as manufacturing residues or intentionally added components. Among these, nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPEs) were the most frequently detected, found in items from five of the eight brands tested and in seven of the nine regions where products were purchased. NPEs were also present in garments made in three out of seven identified manufacturing countries, suggesting their continued use across global luxury supply chains. The detection of NPEs in finished products indicates their use during production, with potential environmental impacts both at the manufacturing stage and during consumer use-especially through washing (Bridgen et al., 2012). Moreover, phthalates were also found in all five items with plastisol-printed fabrics, though in lower concentrations (Brigden et al., 2014). No carcinogenic amines or organotins were detected in the tested samples, though previous research has identified these substances in textiles, highlighting ongoing concerns about product safety.

To conclude, although there is a common perception that SHEIN stands out as particularly harmful within the fashion industry, especially in terms of hazardous chemical use and environmental impact, it is difficult to find systematic studies that directly compare SHEIN to other online platforms, brands, or business models. The two main studies reviewed, one focusing on luxury brands (Brigden et al., 2014) and the other on SHEIN (Cobbing et al., 2024), analyze many of the same groups of hazardous substances, including phthalates, NPEs, formaldehyde, PFAS, and heavy metals. However, while the results are comparable in terms of the chemical classes investigated, differences in sample type and analytical approach limit the possibility of making direct comparisons and therefore drawing conclusions. Moreover, it is important to underline that neither study clearly defines the specific laboratory methods used for the chemical analyses, making it difficult to assess consistency or comparability. In addition, the studies were conducted a decade apart, within different regulatory frameworks and market conditions, which further complicates any attempt at comparison. Finally, it is important to remember that even if these studies include multiple samples from each brand, the number of items analyzed remains small relative to the vast product range offered by these companies. Therefore, although these two studies are not directly comparable due to the reasons defined above, a broad comparison still offers a valuable perspective on the presence of hazardous chemicals in the textile industry which affects both ultra-fast fashion and luxury brand production. The latter phenomenon, in particular, will be further explored in the following section.

To the core of the supply chain

The detection of harmful chemicals in both ultra-fast fashion and luxury clothing shows that this problem affects the entire fashion industry. To address it properly, it is important to have a better understanding of how global textile supply chains work and why they are so complex. While institutions, like the European Union, have established strict controls on numerous hazardous substances, enforcing such standards across the entire textile supply chain is a major challenge. This difficulty stems from the globalization of production, with many manufacturing processes relocated to countries where environmental regulations and labor protections are weaker. Hence, the complex supply chains, which are characterized by a multitude of suppliers and subcontractors, further complicate efforts to monitor chemical use effectively. Adding to this complexity is the rapid turnover of fashion trends, which frequently alters the types of prints, dyes, and chemical treatments employed in textile production (Fransson & Molander, 2013).

Börjeson, Gilek and Karlsson (2014) outline four key points that explain the complicated situation involving clothing production and the use of toxic chemicals. First, public and private textile producers hardly own production facilities; instead, they depend on distributed suppliers and subcontractors, often selected for their lower labor costs in developing countries (Müller et al., 2009; Ciliberti et al., 2008). Second, the environmental and health impacts of chemicals used in textile production are significant, with risks related to different fibers and stages: from pesticide use in natural fiber cultivation to dyeing processes to chemical treatments like flame retardants and water repellents (Assmuth et al., 2011). Third, regulatory frameworks vary widely across different countries. While textile-importing regions like the EU have advanced chemical legislation (e.g., REACH), producer countries often maintain more lenient regulations and weaker enforcement (Eriksson et al., 2010). Fourth, since fashion is moving so fast, dyes and other chemicals are frequently changed without proper estimation of their long-term impacts, making it difficult to develop proper regulations.

Although many scholars view supply chains as single, integrated entities, the empirical evidence from the study by Börjeson, Gilek and Karlsson (2014) suggests that this perspective does not fully apply to textile supply chains. To move toward more responsible supply chain practices, a shift is needed toward enhancing commitment and knowledge management., in order to achieve better integration across the complex global networks and interactions that characterize textile supply chains (Börjeson, Gilek and Karlsson, 2014).

Conclusions

The reviewed literature provides evidence that the use of hazardous chemicals in textile production poses significant health and environmental risks and tries to understand whether there is a difference in terms of chemical safety between garments sold by ultra-fast-fashion brands and luxury brands. Despite the aesthetic and functional purposes that these substances have, such as color fastness, durability, and water repellency, their presence in the manufacturing stage and in the final products brings serious concern. From the very first parts of production to the final finishing processes of garments manufacturing, chemicals such as aromatic amines, bisphenol A (BPA), phthalates, and nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPEs) persist throughout the supply chain (Avagyan et al, 2015; Rovira and Domingo, 2019). These substances have been shown to be mutagenic, carcinogenic, endocrine-disrupting, and otherwise harmful to human health through dermal exposure. Nevertheless, dermal absorption as a way of exposure has been underexplored in comparison to dietary and inhalational pathways, despite growing evidence that chemicals in clothing can be absorbed through the skin and enter systemic circulation, posing risks for consumer and especially more vulnerable population groups such as children and pregnant women (Rovira and Domingo, 2019).

From the literature analyzed, it is difficult to ascertain whether one supply chain is safer than the other, as the current evidence does not allow for such a conclusion. To make reliable and objective comparisons, it would be necessary to apply identical chemical testing and sampling methods with the specific aim of evaluating garments under the same conditions. Nevertheless, the existing research provides valuable insight into the situation across both fast fashion and luxury clothing, highlighting the systemic nature of the problem and the widespread use of hazardous chemicals throughout the textile industry. It is not simply a matter of brand reputation or price point; it reflects a broader failure of the global supply chain of the clothing industry to prioritize health and environmental safety across its production (Cobbing, Wohlgemuth and Panhuber, 2022; Brigden et al., 2014). Countries and institutions such as the European Union have strict regulations on hazardous chemicals but forcing them across global textile supply chains remains a major challenge. Much production is outsourced to countries with weaker environmental and labor protections, while complex and fragmented networks of suppliers and rapid fashion cycles further complicate chemical monitoring (Börjeson, Gilek and Karlsson, 2014).

Future research

In the future, a more integrated and straightforward international framework is needed to protect both consumers and workers. This includes mandatory chemical disclosure, stricter testing and certification requirements, and stronger enforcement mechanisms, especially including the online marketplaces. In order to achieve this goal, given the wide variety of chemical substances potentially present in textile products and the rarity of systematic product controls, expanding laboratory-based research on the effects of these numerous agents is crucial. Such research should contribute to the establishment of clear and universal regulations that can serve as reference points during inspections and regulatory enforcement. This would help preserve consumer health and ensure greater accountability throughout the supply chain. Following this logic, future research could dig deeper into this field to better understand whether there are differences in dermal exposure to chemicals via garments between different social groups, divided by gender, age and occupation and try to understand if some long-term effects can be identifiable. At the same time, studies could investigate how different fabric types — such as natural versus synthetic fibers — affect the release and dermal absorption of hazardous substances. As stated before, expanding scientific research on this topic would support the improvement of existing regulations, with the goal of protecting both the health of producers, who work closely with these substances, and consumers who wear clothing daily.

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Weigthing Weight: Exploring Clothing Fiber Composition and Its Impact on Garments’ Weight

Author: Rita Dominici

Introduction

Various textile management policies are under debate, with particular attention to the effectiveness of weight-based eco-modulation, a policy strategy aimed at minimizing the environmental impact of products (Lifset et al., 2023). To better understand this mechanism, it is important to first know that fashion is widely regarded as “one of the least regulated industries” (Bédat, 2022), in which efforts to achieve a sustainable approach to clothing production are primarily individual and voluntary. In fact, existing policies aim to encourage sustainability and limit environmental damage, but they do not constitute strict international obligations with shared parameters. Indeed, these should be seen more as guidelines that individual nations can modify according to their own norms and priorities. An example is the Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): an environmental policy defined by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) that makes producers responsible for the entire life cycle of their products, from design to waste management. Among its aims is to encourage producers to adopt sustainable production and design practices for durable, repairable, and recyclable products, making production more sustainable. Even though it was not created specifically for textile products, it has since begun to be applied to them as well (Bukhari, Carrasco-Gallego, Ponce-Cueto, 2018). The estimation of the fees for textile products usually depends on several factors, one of which can be weight. For example, in the Netherlands, the PRO UPV Textiles Foundation set a fee of 0.10 € per kg of textiles put into the market in 2024 (Simas and Arega, 2025).  

This consideration of weight is particularly relevant given that although textile waste constitutes a relatively small percentage of overall waste by weight, its environmental impact is significant and continues to grow, especially during the last decades (Bukhari, Carrasco-Gallego, and Ponce-Cueto, 2018). This trend is closely linked to the substantial increase in textile production, which has been driven almost fully by synthetic fibers. These fibers now represent over two-thirds of all materials used in textiles, and more than half of all textiles contain synthetics (Changing Markets Foundation, 2023; Henry, Laitala; Klepp, 2019). For this reason, it is crucial to take into account the diversity of fibers used in clothing: some are natural, others synthetic, and each of them has a specific environmental impact, which is generally higher for synthetic fibers than for natural ones (Muthu et al., 2012). This difference in fiber type leads to varying densities, causing weight variations even when considering the same number of garments (Watson et al., 2014). Therefore, our main question is: “Do garments made of synthetic fibers weigh less than garments made of natural fibers?” 

FIBER DENSITY (g/cm3
Cotton 1.55 
Viscose 1.52 
Polyester 1.39 
Silk 1.34 
Wool 1.30 
Acrylic 1.19 
Nylon 1.14 
Polyethylene 0.95 
Polypropylene 0.91 
Fig. 1: Densities of some general-purpose textile fibers (Hearle and Morton, 2008). 

Data and Methods

This analysis is based on quantitative data collected by PhD candidate Anna Schytte Sigaard for her doctoral project “Want Not, Waste Not”, which is part of a larger project entitled “Wasted Textiles: Reduced Synthetic Textile Waste Through the Development of a Resource-Efficient Value Chain”.

The data were originally gathered using wardrobe methods, involving 28 households in three Norwegian regions: Oslo, Vestfold, and Salten. Due to limitations in sample size, the 28 households cannot ensure representativeness of the Norwegian population. However, the dataset provides a substantial number of textile observations, offering valuable insights. The participating households were asked to collect all textiles that would have otherwise been thrown away, donated to charity, given away, or disposed of in any other way over a six-month period. These items were later registered along with information from the interviews. The first household began the collection in October 2021, and the last one completed it in October 2022.   

Although the project primarily used qualitative methods, the data were extracted and transformed into quantitative form.  

In total, 3556 individual pieces, amounting to 554.5 kg of textiles, were originally registered. Since this analysis only focuses on adult clothing, 1306 individual garments, amounting to 221.34 kg of textiles, were taken into consideration. Moreover, from the 91 original variables, the ones used for the analysis were: Clothing Type, Merged Clothing Type, Weight, Fiber Content, Synthetic Fiber, and Non-synthetic Fiber, Cotton and Polyester.    

The variable “Clothing Type” includes 1306 observations and comprises 23 categories: Blazer, Blouse, Cardigan, Dress, Sweatshirt, Jeans, Jumpsuit, Maternity Wear, Outerwear, Pants, Pantyhose, Pyjamas, Shirt, Shorts, Skirt, Socks, Sweater, T-shirt, Tights, Top, Underwear, Vest, and Workout Clothes. From this variable, the “Merged Clothing Type” variable was created by merging some of the original categories by creating 10 final ones: Heavy Lower wear (including “Pants”, “Pantyhose”, “Jeans”), Activewear, Heavy Upper wear (including “Sweater”, “Sweatshirt”, “Cardigan”), Light Lower wear (with “Skirt”, “Shorts”), Light Upper wear (including “T-shirt”, “Top”, “Blouse”, “Shirt”, “Vest”), Jacket (with “Outerwear” and “Blazer”), Maternity wear, One-Piece (including “Dress” and “Jumpsuit”), Pyjamas and Underwear.

The variable “Weight” provides information on the weight in grams of each of the 1306 garments.  

As clothing fibers, they can be classified into two main categories: synthetic and non-synthetic. Natural (non-synthetic) fibers occur in nature and include materials like cotton, wool and silk, while synthetic fibers are man-made, such as polyester, nylon, and acrylic (Chen et al., 2021). In this analysis, the variables “Synthetic Fiber” and “Non-synthetic Fiber” indicate the amount of each fiber type present in the 1306 garments examined. Using this information the variable “Fiber Content” was created, which includes 3 categories: “Mostly Synthetic” (over 70% of fibre content non-synthetic), “Mixed Material” (between 31-69% of both synthetic and non-synthetic) and “Mostly Natural” (over 70% of fibers are synthetic).

The variables “Cotton”, and “Polyester” include information regarding the quantity of the respective material used in the production of each individual garment. 

Therefore, the analytical sample is composed of 1306 observations.   

After the operationalization of all relevant variables, the analysis will consist of descriptive statistics produced using the statistical program R. In particular, stacked bar charts will be used to visually represent the composition of garments by clothing type, fiber composition and weight. Moreover, to answer the research question, a Welch T-test was employed to compare the average weight of garments made of synthetic versus natural fibers in specific categories, such as dresses and pants. Afterwards, a one-way ANOVA was performed to test for significant differences in the weight of garments based on fiber composition across clothing categories. This was followed by post-hoc Tukey tests to identify pairwise differences. Lastly, a hierarchy regression was run to evaluate the explanatory power of synthetic fiber content in predicting garment weight.

Results

    In order to answer the research question, this section presents the findings of the study, detailing the composition of synthetic and non-synthetic fibers across various clothing categories

Fig.2: Average fiber composition by clothing category  

Fig. 2 shows how different clothing categories, ordered by their average synthetic fiber content, vary in terms of fiber composition. It emerges how synthetic fibers are not equally distributed across all clothing types, for example, on average, some garments, such as “Activewear” and “Pantyhose”, contain a higher percentage of synthetic fibers, while others, like “T-Shirt” or “Jeans”, tend to have higher content of natural fibers.

Fig. 3: Average weight for each type of clothing and material

After better understanding the average fiber composition in the different clothing categories, Fig. 3 also takes into consideration the average weight of the garments and the amount of synthetic and natural fibers they contain. This analysis multiplies the percentage of each fiber type by the weight of the garment to estimate the fiber-specific contribution to weight. From the results it emerges that, although not weighing more in absolute terms across all the clothing categories, natural fibers may contribute significantly to garment weight, especially in categories like “Blazer” and “Jeans”. This may be because natural fibers (such as cotton or wool) are generally heavier than synthetic ones. It is also important to note one limitation of this graph: the calculation considers the percentage composition of the garment along with its weight, without considering that different materials have different specific weights. This means that the same quantity of a certain material may weigh more or less than another. Nevertheless, even if the varying densities of the materials were considered, it is ultimately the way these materials are processed that determines how much they affect the final weight of the garment.

Fig. 4: Dresses’ weight composition (Grams per Fiber type)

In Fig. 4, it is possible to observe how the weight of dresses varies considering their textile composition. It is worth noting that, on average, dresses made mostly from synthetic fibers, especially polyester, are located on the right side of the graph as their weight is lower (around 200 grams) compared to dresses made mostly from natural fibers like cotton, wool, and viscose, which tend to cluster on the left side of the graph because their weight is greater. This emerged also when running a T-Test: the average weight of natural fibers in “Dress” is 1.01 (p< 0.001) grams higher than the average weight of synthetic fibers.  

By looking at the composition of one garment category, it is also interesting to observe the behavior of the fiber types. It emerges that there are some heavier observations where polyester, or other synthetic fibers, constitute most of the garment’s weight. This shows how weighing a garment is not only about a fabric’s absolute density, but it depends also on their processing, they can be thicker or thinner, impacting the final weight of the garment.

Fig. 5: Pants’ weight composition (Grams per Fiber type) 

The same trend is observable in Fig. 5, where the “Pants” clothing category is taken into consideration. From this graph, it can also be observed that, on average, pants made mostly from synthetic fibers, particularly polyester (represented in the graph by the pink color), are lighter and occupy the area on the far right of the graph, with an average weight of around 300 grams. On the other hand, pants whose composition is mostly made of natural fabrics, especially cotton, but also other natural fibers, are located on the far-left side of the graph, having a greater weight (with some observations exceeding 500 grams). In this case as well, the T-test also suggests that: the average weight of natural fibers in “Pants” is 1.10 (p < 0.001) grams higher than the average weight of synthetic fibers. Again, it is important to remember the importance of the processing of a specific material, which can lead to the production of fabrics that are either thicker or thinner, resulting in different final weights. 

Table 1: ANOVA and Post-hoc Tukey Test Results by Clothing Category and Fiber Composition

   Post-hoc Tukey Test 
Clothing CategoryANOVA P-ValueMostly Natural/ Mixed MaterialMostly Synthetic/ Mixed MaterialMostly Synthetic/ Mostly Natural
Jackets0***-4.07429.502***33.576***
Heavy Lower wear0***153.118***-195.682***-348.801***
Pyjamas0.0033**-9.978-48.152**-38.173**
UnderwearNot SignificantNot PerformedNot PerformedNot Performed
Light Upper wearNot SignificantNot PerformedNot PerformedNot Performed
Maternity WearNot SignificantNot PerformedNot PerformedNot Performed
Light Lower wearNot SignificantNot PerformedNot PerformedNot Performed
ActivewearNot SignificantNot PerformedNot PerformedNot Performed
One-PieceNot SignificantNot PerformedNot PerformedNot Performed
Heavy Upper wearNot SignificantNot PerformedNot PerformedNot Performed
All0***-94.34265***-54.10098*40.24167*

Note: ***p<0.01, **p<0.05, *p<0.1

Furthermore, to assess differences in garment weight across fiber categories a variable a one-way ANOVA followed by a post-hoc Tukey test was conducted considering the “Merged Clothing Type” variable. The analysis revealed statistically significant differences for “Jackets”, “Heavy Lower wear”, “Pyjamas”, and the overall sample (All), while other clothing categories did not show significant variation in their weight considering their fiber composition.

For “Jackets” garments made of mostly synthetic fibers were significantly heavier than those made of mixed material and mostly natural fibers. No significant difference was found between mixed material and mostly non-synthetic fibers.

In the case of “Heavy Lower wear” mostly natural-fibers items were significantly heavier than garments with mixed material and significantly lighter than mostly synthetic items. Moreover, mostly synthetic garments were also significantly heavier than mixed material counterparts.

For “Pyjamas”, mostly synthetic items were significantly lighter than those with mixed material and mostly non-synthetic. The difference between mixed material and mostly non-synthetic was not statistically significant.

For categories such as “Underwear”, “Light Upper wear”, “Maternity Wear”, “Light Lower wear”, “Activewear”, “One-Piece”, and “Heavy Upper wear”, no statistically significant differences were found between fiber categories, and thus post-hoc comparisons were not performed.

Finally, when aggregating across all clothing categories (All), significant differences emerged between all fiber categories: mostly non-synthetic garments were heavier than mixed material, and mostly synthetic garments were heavier than those composed mostly of natural fibers and lighter than mixed material items.

Lastly, to examine the contribution of fiber content to garment weight, a hierarchical regression model was employed (See Appendix Table 3). In the first step (Model 1), only the variable “Merged Clothing Type” was included, resulting in an adjusted R² of 0.619. In the second step (Model 2), “Synthetic Fiber” was added to the model, increasing the adjusted R² to 0.648. This indicates that the inclusion of “Synthetic Fiber” explains approximately 3% additional variance in garment weight. An ANOVA comparison between the two models confirmed that this increase in explained variance was statistically significant, showing that synthetic fiber content contributes significantly to predicting garment weight beyond the effect of textile category alone.

Conclusions

The aim of this analysis was to try to understand whether garments made predominantly from synthetic fibers generally weigh less than those made from natural fibers. The motivation behind this research question lies in the fact that the issue of weight-based eco-modulation in textile policies, especially in relation to natural fibers, is an important yet underexplored topic, with practical implications for the fashion industry. From the results it emerges that, on average, especially for some clothing categories, garments made mostly of natural fibers tend to weigh more than those made of synthetic fibers, suggesting that it is important for weight-based policies regulating production in the textile industry to also consider the different types of materials used in garment production in order to achieve better effectiveness. Although it is important to keep in mind a limitation of this analysis: this study does not consider the density differences between the materials since the identity itself is not a proper indicator of the fiber weight of every particular garment. Indeed, the textile final weight would depend also on the physical and chemical processes through which the fibers are processed. This work, however, aims to serve as a starting point for exploring a topic that is still little discussed and that could be further investigated in the future. Additionally, other related themes could be explored, such as the relationship between garment weight, fiber composition, and gender, or how the composition of different fabrics affects the durability of garments.  

References

Bédat, M. (2022). As quoted in Friedman, V. (2022, October 14). New York could make history with a fashion sustainability act. The New York Times.  

Bukhari, M. A., Carrasco-Gallego, R., & Ponce-Cueto, E. (2018). Developing a national programme for textiles and clothing recovery. Waste Management & Research, 36(4), 321-331.  

Changing Markets Foundation. (2021) Fossil Fashion: The Hidden Reliance on Fossil Fuels; Utrecht, The Netherlands. Retrieved from: https://changingmarkets.org/report/fossil-fashion-the-hidden-reliance-of-fast-fashion-on-fossil-fuels/   

Chen, X., Memon, H.A., Wang, Y. et al. Circular Economy and Sustainability of the Clothing and Textile Industry. Mater Circ Econ 3, 12 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42824-021-00026-2 

Hearle, J. W., & Morton, W. E. (2008). Physical properties of textile fibres. Elsevier. 

Henry, B., Laitala, K., & Klepp, I. G. (2019). Microfibres from apparel and home textiles: Prospects for including microplastics in environmental sustainability assessment. Science of the total environment, 652, 483-494.  

Lifset, R., Kalimo, H., Jukka, A., Kautto, P., & Miettinen, M. (2023). Restoring the incentives for eco-design in extended producer responsibility: The challenges for eco-modulation. Waste Management, 168, 189-201.

 Muthu, S. S., Li, Y., Hu, J. Y., & Mok, P. Y. (2012). Quantification of environmental impact and ecological sustainability for textile fibres. Ecological Indicators, 13(1), 66-74.  

Sigaard, A. S. (2023). Want Not, Waste Not: Preliminary findings. Consumption Research Norway (SIFO).  

Simas, M. S., & Arega, M. A. (2025). From local strategies to global sustainability: A macroeconomic analysis of Extended Producer Responsibility scenarios for the Norwegian consumer textiles sector.  

 Watson, D., Kiørboe, N., Palm, D., Tekie, H., Harris, S., Ekvall, T., Lindhqvist T. & Lyng, K. A. (2014). EPR systems and new business models: reuse and recycling of textiles in the Nordic region. Nordisk Ministerråd.  

The environmental impact of product lifetime extension: a literature review and research agenda

Authors: Irene Maldini, Ingun Grimstad Klepp & Kirsi Laitala

Abstract

Consumer goods environmental policy is increasingly focusing on product durability and product lifetime extension (PLE) to reduce their impact. Given the growing societal relevance of PLE, this review investigates the discourse about its environmental effects, and the empirical knowledge that substantiates this discourse. One hundred and nine relevant articles were selected from 388 distinctive records identified in two databases, Scopus and Web of Science. The statements about the environmental effects of PLE in these publications were extracted and analysed, and a detailed process of backward citation tracking was followed to identify the empirical base substantiating these statements, leading to 85 additional publications that were included in further analyses.

The findings show that the main environmental benefits expected from PLE are related to reductions in the volume of goods produced, which result from expected reductions in demand due to delayed product replacement. However, this reasoning is based on two under-researched assumptions about consumer and industry behaviours: that the demand for new products is driven by replacement, and that decisions on production volumes in the industry are driven by consumer demand. The empirical base in the field is dominated by quantitative assessments that reproduce these assumptions rather than studying them. The findings from a handful of field studies that investigate the presumed behaviour, question that it applies. Therefore, a research agenda is proposed to better understand the relations between product lifetimes and material flows and the influence of consumer and industry behaviour over them. Moreover, given the current gap between the durability discourse and the empirical knowledge that would be needed to substantiate it, recommendations are made for academics, policy makers, advocacy groups, and businesses environmental strategists to moderate their expectations from product longevity measures.

Click here to read the full article (elsevier.com).

The EU Textile Strategy: How to Avoid Overproduction and Overconsumption Measures in Environmental Policy

Authors: Irene Maldini and Ingun Grimstad Klepp

Abstract

The environmental impact of clothing has become critical in recent decades and the growing volume of products in circulation plays a main role. The European Union’s Strategy for Sustainable and Circular Textiles is a particularly influential policy in this area given the number of regulatory instruments included and their global influence. However, this study highlights the limitations of this Strategy in reversing the trend of growing production and consumption volumes due to its focus on the product level, specifically on product durability. Based on the analysis of public documents and interviews with participants of the policy making process, the study unpacks the factors that enabled such a decision, and how it was integrated in the final document. The analysis shows that by focusing on product durability, an explicit aim to reduce the volume of clothing was avoided, leaving potentially impactful marketing-related measures out of the scope. Two main factors leading to this exclusion are identified: (a) the framing of the Strategy in terms of competitiveness, and (b) a policy-making process prioritizing input from anecdotal rather than scientific knowledge. The study concludes with recommendations to advance knowledge and policy initiatives in marketing-related environmental policy for production and consumption reductions.

Click here to read the full article.

Changes for CHANGE

The Clothing Research Group warmly welcomes Rita Dominici who has come to SIFO for an internship.

Rita Dominici is a second-year student in the master’s program in “Sociology and Social Research” at the University of Trento. She earned a bachelor’s degree in sociology at the University of Bologna with a thesis titled “Fashion as a Social Phenomenon and Consumption Field: The Rise of Fast Fashion and New Paths Towards Sustainability” for which she researched trends in clothing consumption, focusing on current phenomena within production and consumption in the textile industry. She will be working in the CHANGE project during her internship.

Kinga, who has been with us since September, is now moving on and will start a new job as a product developer at Tufte Wear. We wish her all the best!

Gender, Fashion, Sustainability

Author: Kate Fletcher

Abstract

The ability to affect sustainability outcomes is often culturally gendered. This article examines sustainability practices in fashion in the light of core themes in the gender and sustainability literature, drawing upon a re-analysis of a decade-old dataset of resourceful clothing use practices from the Local Wisdom project. In the dataset, evidence is found both of gendered practices and differentiated levels of involvement by gender. The article presents and examines these findings and then extends the discussion to the effects of gendered influence within the field of fashion sustainability more broadly, a field that may often be seen to be gender-blind. The article argues for a new attention to gender and for a re-imagining of the domain based on metabolism and relationship to overcome ideologies and practices based on separation of one group of people from another and of humans from nature.

Click here to read the full paper (intellectdiscover.com).

– The futures we IMAGINE

The IMAGINE project invites you to its end conference and exhibition!

When: December 10th – 15th 2024
Where: Litteraturhuset, Oslo

Join us to explore visions of the future through the lens of eating, dressing and moving in inspiring talks, works and conversations on December 10th.

And visit the exhibition from December 10th – 15th.

For tickets for December 10th, follow the link here.

Program December 10th

08:30 Doors open

09:00 Velkommen // Mads Bruun Høy

Nye måter å forholde seg til fremtiden på // Nina Heidenstrøm

Mellom katastrofe og utopi. Norske dagdrømmer om livet i fremtiden // Audun Kjus

Forsvinningspunkter – fortellinger om fremtider // Heidi Dahlsveen

The power of imaginaries: imagining futures of consumption // Dan Welch

Dyr i byen – En forfattersamtale om klimaromanen Dyr i byen // Marte Wulff

Future Imaginaries in Art, Policy, and Business: The Dominant and Marginal Voices // Justyna Jakubiec, Rick Dolphijn, Virginie Amilien, Lisbeth Løvbak Berg

11:30 – 12:30 LUNSJ

A story of human and technological coming togetherness // Märtha Rehnberg

Velkommen til utstilling og workshop // Marie Hebrok, Dan Lockton, Femke Coops

14:00 Exhibition Opening

14:30 – 15:30 Workshop

14:00 – 17:00 Exhibition

Urban transitions toward sufficiency-oriented circular post-consumer textile economies

Authors: Katia Vladimirova, Yassie Samie, Irene Maldini, Samira Iran, Kirsi Laitala, Claudia E. Henninger, Sarah Ibrahim Alosaimi, Kelly Drennan, Hannah Lam, Ana-Luisa Teixeira, Iva Jestratijevic & Sabine Weber

Abstract

Wealthy cities are the primary hubs for excessive consumption and disposal of fashion and textiles. As such, cities have the power to support urban transitions toward more circular and sufficient consumption patterns. However, there is a lack of research and data around the topic of post-consumer textiles, which results in lagging policy and action at a city level. Here we aim to address this knowledge gap and offer a deeper understanding of what happens to clothes and textiles after consumers no longer want them, across nine Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development cities. Based on the analysis of policy documents, interviews and scientific and gray literature, the study finds similarities in terms of how the flows are managed across wealthy cities. The findings suggest that directing unwanted textiles toward exports makes the problem of growing post-consumer textile waste, a direct result of fashion overproduction and overconsumption, invisible to the public and to municipalities. This Article offers an important and timely analysis to inform action on post-consumer textiles and proposes a list of actionable policy recommendations for city governments to support the transition toward circular and sufficient urban textile systems.


Click here to read the full article (nature.com) or contact the authors for a copy.

Clothing Research at ESA 2024

The European Sociological Association’s main biennial event this year took the clothing researchers to Porto!

When: 27th – 30th August 2024
Where: University of Porto, Portugal

Set on the beautiful backdrop of Porto, the main themes of the 16th ESA conference were “Tension, Trust and Transformation”. About 20 researchers from Consumption Research Norway SIFO participated in the conference this time around, which for a long time has been a very important arena for the institute, in particular, through the Sociology of Consumption Research Network.

Between sessions, we also had time to visit the city, eat some Francesinha and get acquainted with the chickens living on campus.

Four presentations from the SIFO Clothing Researchers

In the session ‘Clothing consumption 1: Fashion’, Vilde Haugrønning presented the paper ‘Gender Dynamics in Clothing Consumption: Examining the Inflow and Outflow of Clothing from a Practice Oriented Perspective’ based on results from the wardrobe studies of her PhD project in the CHANGE project.


In the session ‘Clothing consumption 2: Identity’, Anna Schytte Sigaard presented her paper ‘Social Practices and Identity-Work: Life Course Changes as Drivers for Textile Disposal’ based on results from the wardrobe studies of her PhD project in the Wasted Textiles project.

In the session, Imaginaries of Consumption, Lisbeth Løvbak Berg presented a paper from the IMAGINE project, “Futures Literacy: Norwegian imaginaries of food and clothing consumption”, co-written with Justyna Jakubiec and Atle Wehn Hegnes. The paper explores how futures literacy of food and clothing consumption is exhibited in the material collected in the project, across the three stakeholder groups, consumers, businesses and policymakers.

In the session ‘Clothing consumption 3: Sustainability’, chaired by Anna, Kirsi presented the paper ‘Wardrobe Revelations: Rethinking Repair Practices and Clothing Consumption’. The paper is based on survey data collected in the CHANGE project.

In the same session, our research friend, Réka Tölg, PhD Candidate at Lund University, also presented the paper ‘Caring Circularities: Enacting Circular Consumption by Caring for and with Clothes’, co-authored with Christian Fuentes.

You can read more about the conference by clicking here (europeansociology.org) and the abstracts from the SIFO clothing researchers’ papers below.

Conference Abstracts

Futures literacy: Norwegian Imaginaries of Food and Clothing Consumption

Lisbeth Løvbak Berg, Justyna Jakubiec & Atle Wehn Hegnes

UNESCO has championed futures literacy since 2012, highlighting its importance in the context of imagining alternative futures and directing change towards desirable futures. It follows that futures literacy allows people to actively engage with the plurality of images of the future and relate them to their own choices and ideas of (un)desirable futures. While this includes understanding the role of the future also in people’s everyday consumption practices, which inevitably play a major role in the green transition, efforts are largely focused on policy planning, business innovation and higher education. We, therefore, ask what level of futures literacy Norwegian stakeholders exhibit related to food and clothing consumption. Based on stories collected from 137 Norwegian consumers, advertisements, and business strategy and policy documents, we highlight the different stakeholders’ narratives of food and clothing consumption to compare their engagement with present imaginaries of future consumption. We find that businesses and policymakers display a higher level of future literacy than consumers. In general, the narratives of food consumption are richer and more well-developed than those of clothing consumption: business and policy documents’ narratives of sustainable clothing futures are limited to the repeating narrative of ‘repair, reuse, recycle’, whereas food consumption narratives range from self-sufficiency to alternative protein sources. The latter suggests a higher level of future literacy, which may reflect a more mature discussion of food futures: adversely, the lack of attention to alternative forms of clothing consumption decreases the likelihood of a larger transformation of clothing consumption patterns.

Gender Dynamics in Clothing Consumption: Examining the Inflow and Outflow of Clothing from a Practice Oriented Perspective

Vilde Haugrønning

The present-day consumption of clothing is marked by excessive production and consumption, leading to issues of water scarcity, microplastic pollution, chemical contamination, CO2 emissions, and textile waste. In order to mitigate the environmental impact of clothing, there is an urgent need to examine the factors influencing the high volume of garments in wardrobes.
This study explores the influence of gender and age on clothing consumption based on a qualitative and quantitative wardrobe study of 15 households in Norway from a practice oriented perspective. Each household had a man and a woman living together as partners to enable a gendered comparison between couples that take part in many of the same practices and share the everyday life. In the wardrobe study, the participants conducted a counting exercise of all the garments they owned, including underwear, socks and accessories. Following this, each participant was asked to register all inflow and outflow of clothing for 6 months.
The analysis focus on the turnover rate of clothing and employs Evan’s (2019) six moments of consumption that focus on processes of acquiring and disposing in relation to practices. Preliminary findings show that female participants acquired a higher quantity of clothing compared to male participants. However, age also play a significant role in determining the turnover rate of clothing. The study highlights the social mechanisms and gender dynamics that shape clothing consumption patterns and challenges the prevailing studies on clothing and fashion that often overlook the nuanced practices and actions that influence clothing volumes.

Social Practices and Identity-Work: Life Course Changes as Drivers for Textile Disposal

Anna Schytte Sigaard

In this contribution, the complex interconnections between social practices and textile consumption are explored. Based on wardrobe interviews in 28 Norwegian households, investigation is carried out of the influence of two major life course changes, cohabitation, and parenthood, on disposal of clothing and other textile items. In the transition from living alone to cohabitation, it is found that the disposal of clothing and textiles emerges not only as a functional act but as a symbolic act of divestment. Spatially and temporally separated practices, such as pre-move closet purges and post-move decoration, underscore the profound identity-work involved in this transition where discarded items come to symbolize remnants of single life. Parenthood introduces a challenging balance between environmentally conscious practices and time constraints, unveiling compromises made in sustainable practices amidst the demands of parenting. The disposal of impractical gifts and inherited baby clothes reflects the negotiation of a new parental identity. In this contribution, the importance of individual reflexivity in the negotiation of identities during major life transitions is emphasized. Thereby, it contributes to expanding the understanding of clothing and textile consumption as both routinized and mundane practices at the same time as involving intentional and reflexive discursive activities.

Wardrobe Revelations: Rethinking Repair Practices and Clothing Consumption

Kirsi Laitala

Global clothing production and consumption pose significant challenges to environmental, social, and economic sustainability, particularly driven by the fast-fashion business model linking the global North and South. This study, based on a Norwegian consumer survey (N=1200), investigates factors influencing volumes of clothing consumption. Analyzing acquisition, ownership (wardrobe size), and disposal volumes, principal component analysis (PCA) factor extraction was used to identify key constructs related to respondents’ preferences and perceptions of clothing acquisition, use and repair practices.
Gender and age emerge as pivotal determinants, with women reporting higher acquisition, ownership, and disposal levels than men. Those in their 50s possess the largest wardrobes, while younger individuals exhibited a higher frequency of clothing acquisition and disposal, and thus higher turnover rates of their wardrobe contents. Surprisingly, the study reveals that higher repair intentions or focus on quality do not correspond to reduced consumption. These counterintuitive results challenge conventional assumptions about the relationship between these practices and overall consumption. Similarly, factors such as the allure of sales, impulse buying, and the desire to appear well-dressed contributed to increased consumption levels, emphasizing the influence of psychological and social factors.
The lack of correlation between reduced consumption and the intention to focus on buying fewer quality items and repairing more implies a need for alternative strategies that consumers can apply to address their consumption levels and related sustainability challenges in the fashion industry. This research emphasizes the urgency of reevaluating current practices and fostering a more sustainable and conscientious approach to clothing consumption.





The way forward for WOOLUME

Summary

This note looks at knowledge transference between a country of high wool utilisation (Norway) and a country of low wool utilisation (Poland). The findings that are presented here, are collected through semi-structured interviews, via Zoom, in person and also with one written response. All interviewees were project partners. Economics and scale are important themes, especially for moving forward with better use of local wool. As identified in other projects, things need to happen in the right order and there must be an economic fundament that ensures a professionalism and not that what one does is done on a hobby basis. The skills gap is an important issue if there is to be a future for the wool industry in Europe, and this must be addressed at national and EU level, this is not something a project or industry can fix on their own.

Click here to read the full report.