From Clothes to Skin: Chemical Safety in Ultra-Fast Fashion and Luxury Brands’ Clothes

Author: Rita Dominici

Abstract

This literature review explores the presence and associated health risks of hazardous chemicals in clothing, with a particular focus on dermal exposure. It investigates the potential health effects of skin contact with toxic substances in garments and whether clothing sold from fast fashion brands and luxury brands contain different levels of chemicals. It emerged that chemicals such as aromatic amines, bisphenol A (BPA), phthalates, and PFAS are commonly found in textiles and have been linked to serious health issues, particularly when skin is exposed to them (Rovira and Domingo, 2019). This review also compares two Greenpeace investigations, one on ultra-fast fashion brand SHEIN and the other on various luxury brands, highlighting that both types of garments can contain harmful substances (Brigden et al., 2014; Cobbing, Wohlgemuth and Panhuber, 2022). It suggests that the issue is widespread across the entire fashion industry. Therefore, stronger regulation, improved transparency, and further scientific research on chemical safety in textiles are needed.

Introduction

Textiles, and therefore clothing, are an essential part of our daily lives, and the processes involved in transforming raw fibers into finished garments are complex and chemically intensive (Avagyan et al, 2015). Whether derived from natural sources such as cotton or wool, or synthetically produced in factories, textile materials go through numerous stages of treatment and finishing that rely on a wide variety of chemical substances (Fransson and Molander, 2012). On one hand, pesticides, fungicides and biocides are used in the cultivation process of natural fibers, on the other hand, chemicals such as dyes, flame retardants, plasticizers, antibacterial agents, antistatic agents and antioxidants are employed in the production of synthetic fibers (Avagyan et al, 2015; Chen et al., 2022) These and other additives are introduced during the different phases of the manufacturing process such as spinning, dyeing, printing and finishing, with the aim to enhance the performance of these textiles for specific uses (Chen et al., 2022). While these substances provide better functionality, appearance, and durability of fabrics, such as wrinkle resistance or water repellency, they also raise serious concerns for both environmental sustainability and public health (Avagyan et al, 2015).

The widespread use of hazardous chemicals in textile manufacturing has long been recognized as a significant source of pollution, with dyes being among the most common contaminants found in textile wastewater (Rovira and Domingo, 2019). Yet, the risks lie even beyond the production phase. Although much of the existing scientific literature has focused on occupational exposure during manufacturing, growing attention is being paid to the risks faced by final consumers, particularly through dermal exposure. Hence, many textiles retain residues of harmful substances that can be released during regular wear, posing risks through direct skin contact, inhalation of microfibers, or even indirect ingestion (Rovira and Domingo, 2019). While certain forms of human exposure to toxins, such as ingestion or inhalation, are the most studied, potential risks linked to skin contact with chemically treated clothes have received less attention.

This literature review aims to examine current scientific knowledge on the presence and health effects of toxic chemicals in clothing. Therefore, the two research questions are: “What are the potential health risks associated with dermal exposure to toxic chemicals present in clothing?” and “Are garments sold by luxury brands safer than those sold by fast fashion brands in terms of hazardous chemicals?”

Method and material

The 22 studies cited in the article were identified using Google Scholar as the main search engine, as well as consulting the reference list of the selected articles to further deepen my research. The search process included a range of keywords related to both the social and chemical dimensions of clothing and textiles, including “chemicals in clothes”, “hazardous chemicals in clothes”, “toxins in fast fashion”, “chemicals in luxury” and “clothes dermal exposure”. The studies vary significantly in scope, with some rooted in chemical analysis while others focus on absorption of hazardous chemicals through the contact of clothes with the skin. These studies often rely on laboratory methods to analyze how specific substances behave when in contact with human skin. The second part of this review aims to examine the presence of hazardous chemicals in garments produced through specific supply chains, a research topic that appears to be less developed. For this reason, only two such studies were included in the article. Both were conducted by Greenpeace and involved testing the chemical content of clothing items. One focused on garments sold by ultra-fast fashion brands, particularly SHEIN, while the other examined clothing items from various luxury brands. Nevertheless, their inclusion provides an insight into a relatively underexplored but important aspect of the issue, trying not only to understand the consequences of exposure to these substances through garments, but also to investigate whether there are differences in the types and levels of chemicals found in items sold by ultra-fast fashion brands such as SHEIN compared to those in designer clothing from luxury labels.

Chemicals in clothes: health risks from skin

The textile industry relies heavily on a wide range of chemical treatments to enhance fabric quality, improve durability, and achieve specific aesthetic effects. Even if many of these chemicals are washed out before the clothes reach stores, not all of them disappear, thus, some residues remain in the fabric and can be released when we wear the clothes, especially when they come into direct contact with our skin (Rovira and Domingo, 2019).

Among the various toxic pollutants found in textiles, particular emphasis is on aromatic amines (AAs). These substances can be released under certain conditions from azo dyes: a widely used class of synthetic dyes in the textile industry (Brigden et al., 2014). As summarized by Platzek (2010), exposure to aromatic amines through consumer products can lead to serious health risks, primarily due to the mutagenic and/or carcinogenic nature of certain AAs. The harmful effects of these chemicals are closely linked to producing certain substances capable of causing damage to DNA and proteins (Brüschweiler and Merlot, 2017). In response, countries including EU member states and China have implemented regulations banning the sale of textiles that may release carcinogenic amines above certain thresholds when in contact with the skin. EU regulations currently restrict 22 specific amines with a maximum limit of 30 mg/kg (EU, 2002), while Chinese regulations are even stricter, setting a limit of 20 mg/kg and including two additional compounds (Bridgen et al., 2014).

Beyond azo dyes, there are other chemicals found in textiles that raise serious health concerns. These include Bisphenol A (BPA), which is another particularly concerning compound. Commonly discussed in the context of plastics, BPA is also present in textiles, especially those with printed designs or made from synthetic fibers (Herrero et al., 2023). BPA can be introduced during textile production both as a component of dyes and antioxidants and as an additive in polyester to improve colorfastness, antistatic properties, and moisture control (Xue et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2019; Undas et al., 2023, as cited in Herrero et al., 2023). Its presence in clothing can become hazardous with prolonged contact with the skin, which increases the risk of dermal absorption -particularly for sensitive populations such as pregnant women and children (Herrero et al., 2023). Exposure to BPA has been associated with a variety of adverse health outcomes. In children, both prenatal and postnatal exposure has been linked to behavioral disorders, asthma, obesity, immune system dysfunctions, hormonal disturbances, and altered pubertal development (Herrero et al., 2023). In adults, elevated BPA levels have been connected to breast and prostate cancer, metabolic disorders, and diabetes (Chen et al., 2016; Freire et al., 2019). Furthermore, BPA analogs like bisphenol S (BPS) and bisphenol F (BPF) may have endocrine-disrupting effects that are equal to or even greater than those of BPA itself (Herrero et al., 2023).

Other chemicals used on clothing that can cause harm are phthalates: chemicals used to soften plastics and often found in printed clothes. For this reason, it is important to consider that the final consumers of textiles containing printed PVC are often children, who are a group particularly vulnerable to endocrine-disrupting compounds due to their stage of development (Martínez et al., 2018). The review by Caldwell (2012) adds to these concerns by highlighting new findings on these substances, including their potential to cause chromosomal damage, accelerate cancer progression, and alter gene expression, even at lower concentrations. PFAS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances), APEOs (alkylphenol polyethoxylates), and NPEs are other chemicals commonly used during the production process with the aim of enhancing softness, smoothness, and water resistance (Chen et al., 2022). However, PFAS have become a major environmental concern due to their persistence and low degradability. Substances like PFOS (Perfluorooctanesulfonate) and PFOA, have been linked to serious health risks, including effects on fertility, hormonal disruption, and childhood obesity. PFAS concentrations have been found in various textiles regardless of fiber type, with higher levels observed in polyester than in nylon (Chen et al., 2022). Formaldehyde is another chemical of concern in the textile industry. Traditionally used to improve anti-creasing properties, compounds that release formaldehyde have been associated with eye, nose, and throat irritation, allergic skin reactions, and even cancer, as classified by the IARC (Group 1) (Cobbing, Wohlgemuth and Panhuber, 2022). Although modern finishing techniques release lower amounts of formaldehyde, elevated levels have still been found in certain garments (Rovira and Domingo, 2019).

Beyond the chemicals briefly discussed, a wide range of other hazardous chemicals are also present in textile products. These include heavy metals such as lead and cadmium, nickel (a known allergen), and flame retardants, all of which can be absorbed through skin contact. These substances can contribute to systemic health risks and should not be overlooked in risk assessments concerning dermal exposure to garments.

Finally, after this brief overview of some of the chemicals used in clothing production and the effects of their contact with the skin, the following paragraphs will explore in more depth the relationship between the use of these additives and the production of ultra-fast fashion and luxury brand garments.

Chemical usage in clothes: ultra-fast fashion vs. luxury brands

The fast fashion industry has long been criticized for its high-volume, high-speed production cycles, and for the harsh environmental and social consequences produced by its business model. However, the phenomenon of ultra-fast-fashion brands has appeared in recent years (Cobbing, Wohlgemuth and Panhuber, 2022). This model goes beyond fast-fashion production in speed and scale, with suppliers expected to deliver goods within just 3 to 7 days, which are then shipped directly to global consumers via air shipment. Such logistics are environmentally damaging and linked to violations of labor and regulatory frameworks (Cobbing, Wohlgemuth and Panhuber, 2022).

To investigate the risks linked to this model of production and the use of chemicals in the clothes, Greenpeace conducted a chemical analysis of 47 garments purchased from SHEIN platforms in Austria, Germany, Italy, Spain, and Switzerland, as well as from a temporary store in Munich. The tests, carried out by an independent laboratory, revealed alarming levels of hazardous chemicals, ignoring EU safety regulations and raising serious concerns about the companies’ violations of consumer safety and environmental regulations (Cobbing, Wohlgemuth and Panhuber, 2022).
The garments were tested for a broad spectrum of toxic substances, including formaldehyde, phthalates, heavy metals, PFAS, and aromatic amines from azo dyes. The results confirmed that several items contained illegal levels of harmful chemicals, posing potential threats to workers in the supply chain and communities living near manufacturing sites, where these pollutants may be discharged into the air and water, and final consumers, through indirect digestion, inhalation and skin contact (Cobbing, Wohlgemuth and Panhuber, 2022).

This issue is not limited to Europe. In Canada, an independent investigation found that 1 in 5 items of clothing from three fast fashion retailers, Zaful, AliExpress, and SHEIN, contained high levels of toxic chemicals. The latter’s garments contained dangerous levels of substances such as lead, PFAS, and phthalates (CBC, 2021). In one shocking case, a toddler’s jacket sold by SHEIN contained lead levels 20 times higher than Canada’s legal limit. The Swedish Chemicals Agency (2013) has also warned of the increased risk associated with purchasing goods from non-EU-based online vendors, noting the difficulty in monitoring chemical compliance when companies operate without physical presence within the EU (KEMI, 2016). Efforts such as the EU Safety Gate system and the voluntary Product Safety Pledge+ aim to improve accountability among online marketplaces. Major platforms like Amazon have signed on, but SHEIN remains absent from these initiatives, raising further concerns about its commitment to consumer safety (European Union, 2023).
It was only in 2023 that SHEIN made public its Restricted Substances List (RSL) and Manufacturing Restricted Substances List (MRSL), -documents that outline hazardous chemicals and the regulatory limits that must be followed both within the EU and internationally. Despite these improvements, full transparency has not yet been achieved. For example, the company still does not publish a suppliers list, which would need to include its wet processing suppliers, where hazardous chemicals are most intensively used, even though such a list appears to exist, (Cobbing, Wohlgemuth and Panhuber, 2022).

A similar investigation was conducted, this time focusing on garments produced by luxury brands. Bridgen, Hetherington, Wang, Santillo and Johnston (2014) analyzed 27 luxury clothing and footwear items from major brands such as Dior, Dolce&Gabbana, Armani, Hermès, Louis Vuitton, Marc Jacobs, Trussardi, and Versace. These products were purchased in nine different countries or regions between May and June 2013 and were reportedly manufactured in at least seven different countries, although the country of origin for five items could not be identified. The chemical screening focused on a range of hazardous substances, including nonylphenol ethoxylates, carcinogenic amines released under reducing conditions, phthalates, organotins, per- and polyfluorinated chemicals, and antimony.

Findings confirm the presence of multiple hazardous substances in luxury textile and footwear products, either as manufacturing residues or intentionally added components. Among these, nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPEs) were the most frequently detected, found in items from five of the eight brands tested and in seven of the nine regions where products were purchased. NPEs were also present in garments made in three out of seven identified manufacturing countries, suggesting their continued use across global luxury supply chains. The detection of NPEs in finished products indicates their use during production, with potential environmental impacts both at the manufacturing stage and during consumer use-especially through washing (Bridgen et al., 2012). Moreover, phthalates were also found in all five items with plastisol-printed fabrics, though in lower concentrations (Brigden et al., 2014). No carcinogenic amines or organotins were detected in the tested samples, though previous research has identified these substances in textiles, highlighting ongoing concerns about product safety.

To conclude, although there is a common perception that SHEIN stands out as particularly harmful within the fashion industry, especially in terms of hazardous chemical use and environmental impact, it is difficult to find systematic studies that directly compare SHEIN to other online platforms, brands, or business models. The two main studies reviewed, one focusing on luxury brands (Brigden et al., 2014) and the other on SHEIN (Cobbing et al., 2024), analyze many of the same groups of hazardous substances, including phthalates, NPEs, formaldehyde, PFAS, and heavy metals. However, while the results are comparable in terms of the chemical classes investigated, differences in sample type and analytical approach limit the possibility of making direct comparisons and therefore drawing conclusions. Moreover, it is important to underline that neither study clearly defines the specific laboratory methods used for the chemical analyses, making it difficult to assess consistency or comparability. In addition, the studies were conducted a decade apart, within different regulatory frameworks and market conditions, which further complicates any attempt at comparison. Finally, it is important to remember that even if these studies include multiple samples from each brand, the number of items analyzed remains small relative to the vast product range offered by these companies. Therefore, although these two studies are not directly comparable due to the reasons defined above, a broad comparison still offers a valuable perspective on the presence of hazardous chemicals in the textile industry which affects both ultra-fast fashion and luxury brand production. The latter phenomenon, in particular, will be further explored in the following section.

To the core of the supply chain

The detection of harmful chemicals in both ultra-fast fashion and luxury clothing shows that this problem affects the entire fashion industry. To address it properly, it is important to have a better understanding of how global textile supply chains work and why they are so complex. While institutions, like the European Union, have established strict controls on numerous hazardous substances, enforcing such standards across the entire textile supply chain is a major challenge. This difficulty stems from the globalization of production, with many manufacturing processes relocated to countries where environmental regulations and labor protections are weaker. Hence, the complex supply chains, which are characterized by a multitude of suppliers and subcontractors, further complicate efforts to monitor chemical use effectively. Adding to this complexity is the rapid turnover of fashion trends, which frequently alters the types of prints, dyes, and chemical treatments employed in textile production (Fransson & Molander, 2013).

Börjeson, Gilek and Karlsson (2014) outline four key points that explain the complicated situation involving clothing production and the use of toxic chemicals. First, public and private textile producers hardly own production facilities; instead, they depend on distributed suppliers and subcontractors, often selected for their lower labor costs in developing countries (Müller et al., 2009; Ciliberti et al., 2008). Second, the environmental and health impacts of chemicals used in textile production are significant, with risks related to different fibers and stages: from pesticide use in natural fiber cultivation to dyeing processes to chemical treatments like flame retardants and water repellents (Assmuth et al., 2011). Third, regulatory frameworks vary widely across different countries. While textile-importing regions like the EU have advanced chemical legislation (e.g., REACH), producer countries often maintain more lenient regulations and weaker enforcement (Eriksson et al., 2010). Fourth, since fashion is moving so fast, dyes and other chemicals are frequently changed without proper estimation of their long-term impacts, making it difficult to develop proper regulations.

Although many scholars view supply chains as single, integrated entities, the empirical evidence from the study by Börjeson, Gilek and Karlsson (2014) suggests that this perspective does not fully apply to textile supply chains. To move toward more responsible supply chain practices, a shift is needed toward enhancing commitment and knowledge management., in order to achieve better integration across the complex global networks and interactions that characterize textile supply chains (Börjeson, Gilek and Karlsson, 2014).

Conclusions

The reviewed literature provides evidence that the use of hazardous chemicals in textile production poses significant health and environmental risks and tries to understand whether there is a difference in terms of chemical safety between garments sold by ultra-fast-fashion brands and luxury brands. Despite the aesthetic and functional purposes that these substances have, such as color fastness, durability, and water repellency, their presence in the manufacturing stage and in the final products brings serious concern. From the very first parts of production to the final finishing processes of garments manufacturing, chemicals such as aromatic amines, bisphenol A (BPA), phthalates, and nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPEs) persist throughout the supply chain (Avagyan et al, 2015; Rovira and Domingo, 2019). These substances have been shown to be mutagenic, carcinogenic, endocrine-disrupting, and otherwise harmful to human health through dermal exposure. Nevertheless, dermal absorption as a way of exposure has been underexplored in comparison to dietary and inhalational pathways, despite growing evidence that chemicals in clothing can be absorbed through the skin and enter systemic circulation, posing risks for consumer and especially more vulnerable population groups such as children and pregnant women (Rovira and Domingo, 2019).

From the literature analyzed, it is difficult to ascertain whether one supply chain is safer than the other, as the current evidence does not allow for such a conclusion. To make reliable and objective comparisons, it would be necessary to apply identical chemical testing and sampling methods with the specific aim of evaluating garments under the same conditions. Nevertheless, the existing research provides valuable insight into the situation across both fast fashion and luxury clothing, highlighting the systemic nature of the problem and the widespread use of hazardous chemicals throughout the textile industry. It is not simply a matter of brand reputation or price point; it reflects a broader failure of the global supply chain of the clothing industry to prioritize health and environmental safety across its production (Cobbing, Wohlgemuth and Panhuber, 2022; Brigden et al., 2014). Countries and institutions such as the European Union have strict regulations on hazardous chemicals but forcing them across global textile supply chains remains a major challenge. Much production is outsourced to countries with weaker environmental and labor protections, while complex and fragmented networks of suppliers and rapid fashion cycles further complicate chemical monitoring (Börjeson, Gilek and Karlsson, 2014).

Future research

In the future, a more integrated and straightforward international framework is needed to protect both consumers and workers. This includes mandatory chemical disclosure, stricter testing and certification requirements, and stronger enforcement mechanisms, especially including the online marketplaces. In order to achieve this goal, given the wide variety of chemical substances potentially present in textile products and the rarity of systematic product controls, expanding laboratory-based research on the effects of these numerous agents is crucial. Such research should contribute to the establishment of clear and universal regulations that can serve as reference points during inspections and regulatory enforcement. This would help preserve consumer health and ensure greater accountability throughout the supply chain. Following this logic, future research could dig deeper into this field to better understand whether there are differences in dermal exposure to chemicals via garments between different social groups, divided by gender, age and occupation and try to understand if some long-term effects can be identifiable. At the same time, studies could investigate how different fabric types — such as natural versus synthetic fibers — affect the release and dermal absorption of hazardous substances. As stated before, expanding scientific research on this topic would support the improvement of existing regulations, with the goal of protecting both the health of producers, who work closely with these substances, and consumers who wear clothing daily.

References

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Avagyan, R., Luongo, G., Thorsén, G., & Östman, C. (2015). Benzothiazole, benzotriazole, and their derivates in clothing textiles—a potential source of environmental pollutants and human exposure. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 22(8), 5842–5849.

Börjeson, N., Gilek, M., & Karlsson, M. (2015). Knowledge challenges for responsible supply chain management of chemicals in textiles–as experienced by procuring organisations. Journal of Cleaner Production, 107, 130–136.

Brigden, K., Santillo, D., & Johnston, P. (2012). Nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPEs) in textile products, and their release through laundering (Greenpeace Research Laboratories Technical Report 01/2012). http://www.greenpeace.to/greenpeace/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/Dirty_Laundry_ProductTesting_Technical_Report_01-2012.pdf

Brigden, K., Hetherington, S., Wang, M., Santillo, D., & Johnston, P. (2014). Hazardous chemicals in branded luxury textile products on sale during 2013 (Greenpeace Research Laboratories Technical Report No. 1).

Brüschweiler, B. J., & Merlot, C. (2017). Azo dyes in clothing textiles can be cleaved into a series of mutagenic aromatic amines which are not regulated yet. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 88, 214–226.

Caldwell, J. C. (2012). DEHP: Genotoxicity and potential carcinogenic mechanisms—A review. Mutation Research/Reviews in Mutation Research, 751(2), 82-157.

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Chen, D., Kannan, K., Tan, H. L., Zheng, Z. G., Feng, Y. L., Wu, Y., & Widelka, M. (2016). Bisphenol analogues other than BPA: Environmental occurrence, human exposure, and toxicity—a review. Environmental Science & Technology, 50(11), 5438–5453.

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Cobbing, M., Wohlgemuth, V., & Panhuber, L. (2022). Taking the shine off Shein: A business model based on hazardous chemicals and environmental destruction. Greenpeace Germany.

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The EU Textile Strategy: How to Avoid Overproduction and Overconsumption Measures in Environmental Policy

Authors: Irene Maldini and Ingun Grimstad Klepp

Abstract

The environmental impact of clothing has become critical in recent decades and the growing volume of products in circulation plays a main role. The European Union’s Strategy for Sustainable and Circular Textiles is a particularly influential policy in this area given the number of regulatory instruments included and their global influence. However, this study highlights the limitations of this Strategy in reversing the trend of growing production and consumption volumes due to its focus on the product level, specifically on product durability. Based on the analysis of public documents and interviews with participants of the policy making process, the study unpacks the factors that enabled such a decision, and how it was integrated in the final document. The analysis shows that by focusing on product durability, an explicit aim to reduce the volume of clothing was avoided, leaving potentially impactful marketing-related measures out of the scope. Two main factors leading to this exclusion are identified: (a) the framing of the Strategy in terms of competitiveness, and (b) a policy-making process prioritizing input from anecdotal rather than scientific knowledge. The study concludes with recommendations to advance knowledge and policy initiatives in marketing-related environmental policy for production and consumption reductions.

Click here to read the full article.

Gender, Fashion, Sustainability

Author: Kate Fletcher

Abstract

The ability to affect sustainability outcomes is often culturally gendered. This article examines sustainability practices in fashion in the light of core themes in the gender and sustainability literature, drawing upon a re-analysis of a decade-old dataset of resourceful clothing use practices from the Local Wisdom project. In the dataset, evidence is found both of gendered practices and differentiated levels of involvement by gender. The article presents and examines these findings and then extends the discussion to the effects of gendered influence within the field of fashion sustainability more broadly, a field that may often be seen to be gender-blind. The article argues for a new attention to gender and for a re-imagining of the domain based on metabolism and relationship to overcome ideologies and practices based on separation of one group of people from another and of humans from nature.

Click here to read the full paper (intellectdiscover.com).

Comparing Male and Female Wardrobes: Gender Dynamics in the Practice of Dressing

Authors: Vilde Haugrønning, Ingrid Haugsrud

Abstract

This chapter explores the influence of gender on clothing consumption and the impact on differences in clothing volumes between men and women. Based on a qualitative and quantitative wardrobe study, we employ Schatzki’s (2002) social ontology of practice combined with Butler’s (1990) gender performance concept to examine the relationship between gender and clothing consumption in 15 households in Norway. The findings show that women had on average 497 items and the men had 258 items, and the main difference between male and female wardrobes was due to the number of items per occasion. These findings highlights the complexities and tensions faced by women in navigating clothing norms and maintaining a balance in the practice of dressing between appropriate dress, feminine expressions and having an ideal and more sustainable wardrobe. This chapter contributes to a better understanding of the interplay between occasions and gender dynamics that shape clothing consumption patterns. Moreover, it illustrates the potential of ‘occasion’ as an analytical concept and the implications of gender in clothing consumption, challenging the prevailing studies on clothing and fashion that often overlook the nuanced practices and actions that influence clothing volumes.

Click here for the full article (emerald.com) or contact the authors for a copy.

Pakket i plast 

Authors: Kate Fletcher and Ingun Grimstad Klepp

This talk was a part of the Forskning i Friluftsliv 2024 Conference, in Oslo (se more on norskfriluftsliv.no).

Watch the talk or read the full text below.

Abstract

Friluftsliv (outdoor life) is not only a part of the solution, but also a part of the problem when it comes to misuse of nature (Aall et al., 2011). We will reflect around this dilemma in the following text, using synthetic (plastic) clothing as a starting point, additionally we will ask how plastic influences outdoor wear and with our experience of nature. The research question we will discuss is: How do the clothes and shoes we use in friluftsliv create feelings of closeness, control and distance to nature? We will ground our discussion by contrasting plastic and natural materials.   

Method

A case study was used to gather data on the experience in nature with non-synthetic outdoor wear and shoes. Life Writing (Fletcher, 2022), photography and sensory ethnography (Vannini, 2024) were the methods. We used ourselves as informants, spending three autumn days in Vågå (Norway) in 2024. The methodologies are self-biographical and make use of feelings and bodily experiences that take place when out in nature wearing non-synthetic garments and shoes. The aim was to describe what we experienced, both positive and negative by not using plastic clothes while in nature. This fieldwork is only one part of a bigger initiative that we hope will result in a project where we can explore the theme of outerwear in friluftsliv in more depth.  

Water, valleys, mountains, birds and much more under, over and around us played a part in our experiences. We also collaborated with other partners, most importantly a small leather tanning company ULU1, operated by Sofie and Roni. ULU tans leather and hides gathered in the area, in addition to reconstructions and guided nature tours. Reindeer is the most important resource, and they tan the hides using natural resources such as bark and brain mass from the reindeers (Klepp & Haugrønning, 2021). Accompanying us on one of the days was a film crew from Frys Film2. We wish to thank all our partners, from the reindeer and rain to Sofie and Roni and all their children.  

Synthetic clothing in friluftsliv  

Friluftsliv has the same environmental challenges as society at large, growing volumes of things. This challenge is driven by another important factor when it comes to clothes and textiles; plastification. These two growing aspects are connected because bigger volumes of textiles would not be possible without plastification (Changing Markets Foundation, 2021; Klepp et al., 2023). Plastification contributes to pollution during production, use and waste by the means of plastic and microplastics (Kounina et al., 2024).  

There is no doubt that plastification and growing volumes of outerwear has had a lot of positive effects. We can pack lighter and be safer when outside. The road to the goal, not matter how high or far, is both shorter and faster be it sun or rain, with safer and more remarkable activities added to the mix. The consumption connected to friluftsliv is right for Norway and this growth meets little criticism (Klepp & Skuland, 2013). Few have asked what we lose with this development and little real alternatives to synthetics exists on the marked for many types of garments. Plastification has come such a long way that many consumers do not see it as a serious substitute to go on long trips without synthetic clothing.  

The use of synthetics has a very short history. Humans have existed for approximately 300 000 years on this earth. Clothes have been used for only one third of that time. Synthetic textiles, meaning fibers made of fossil fuels (plastic), were invented almost 100 years ago, but they did not explode in popularity until the 1980s. This period saw the invention of synthetic textiles such as polyester, fleece and Gore-Tex, which has since become staples of the outerwear industry3. Our dependency on synthetics in outerwear is, historically, a short one. Furthermore, these past decades humans have spent more time inside than ever before. Our wish to spend time outside without plastic is therefore grounded in many historical role models and references. The garments we used were a combination of copies of old garments (form the Iron and the Viking ages) and newly developed garments made with old techniques and principles.  

Results  

We both use a lot of clothing made from natural fibers, yet being clothed without any plastic felt different. We had chosen four examples form the empirical material and structured them around four senses; sight, touch, smell and hearing.  

Sight  

The sense of sight is important for friluftsliv. We enjoy the view and lose ourselves in the colors and details around us. Yet, we do not only see the nature. We also see each other not only while out in nature, but also on pictures from the trips afterwards.  

In the presentation we showed Figure 1, a picture form the trip where Ronny, Sofie and Frys film crew were with us. The film crew documented as we walked up the path on Snaufjellet in the drizzle. The picture is of Ingun and Sofie in a grand scenery with the sky, mountains, fog and the mountain we walked on covered in low heather. The colors are muted, with warm rust-tones and cautious greys in the forefront, on our clothes and in the nature around us. The reindeer moss and a light grey hint of a clearing in the clouds bring most contrast to the picture. In the presentation we showed a close up of the two people on the right of the image. And then we panned out, showing the same photo but with a wider angle. Here the Frys film crew is also visible. In this angle the eye travels away from the greys and rustics and attaches itself to the strong synthetic colors of raincoats and backpacks. Yellowish greens, orange, turquoise and black appear in the foreground and catch the eye. These clothes and equipment are not derived from natural materials, not ‘belonging’ in the nature, but create a contrast to it, which is often the case in photos of the outdoors. Photos of nature with and without humans are inherently different this way. Synthetic clothing and clothing made of natural fibers with synthetic colors change the way we look and what we see.  

Figure 1: the affect of outdoor wear colour palettes on the visual sense. Photo credit: Kate Fletcher

 

Touch  

The sense of touch is understood as everything we feel through our skin. We experience heat, cold, wind, different surfaces and much more. We feel the clothes we have on our body. We use clothes and shoes to avoid feeling too much and perhaps avoid feeling every pinecone on the path and every needling wind gust.  

A lot of synthetics in outerwear are used to avoid feeling different sensations, such as being wet or cold. Fig 2 shows Ingun in the rain , to reflect on what we lose when using plastic. Gore-tex and other technologies of the same sort are characterized by the use of microporous film containing the forever-chemical from the PFAS group. The aim of the film is to keep away moisture, while at the same time having so-called “breathable” qualities. This in turn means that the film is letting water vapor through. In theory, this film is keeping the wearer dry by letting out the vapor created by the body when moving (or even when sitting still or sleeping), while it simultaneously is supposed to keep rain or sea spray out. In reality, this does not always work.   

Figure 2: alternative rain wear. Photo credit: Kate Fletcher

 

Other techniques to keep water out can be used. One such way is to lead the water away. The double coat which used to exist on sheep of older species, before being bred off in order to adapt the wool to modern spinning machines, comprises of long covering or guard hairs which lead water and moisture away from the soft underwool. We humans use this technique when hanging up a chain from gutters rather than installing a pipe to lead away the water. The water follows the chain down to the ground.  

Ingun wore a short cape on the trip, which was made out of seal skin. The raindrops dripped from her hair and down the seal skin before being led away by the guard hairs on the collar. Ingun was warm beneath the hair and skin. The clothing she wore did not cover her entire body. Her knees and calves were uncovered. “I am particularly fond of water in all forms. Sea, rain, ice, snow and fog. Being able to feel water run down the skin is lovely” she explains. Taking off clothes is one way to keep them dry of course. Going out in nature without clothes or with some body parts uncovered allows for the feeling of rain against the skin. To be wet is not always synonymous with being cold. Our habit of wearing garments that keep the water out, robs us of the feeling of rain against the skin. This is further enforced when using tightly woven clothing which not only keeps the water away, but also keeps the wind and yes, even air out from our biggest sensory apparatus, our skin.  

The feet are the body part that has been affected by plastification the most. This is not a theme that will be explored further as being barefoot or nude, meaning without shoes or clothes, changes the way we exist in the world. We hope to be able to return to this subject and many others at a later date.  

Smell 

Clothes smell. In actuality, we do a lot in order to control the smell of clothing, such as washing them (Klepp et al., 2022; Laitala et al., 2022; McQueen et al., 2022). The sense of smell has a fascinating history, being perceived as animalistic and subjugated to sight as a less intellectual and less human sense (Classen et al., 1994) Klepp et al., 2022). 

Textiles, as well as leather and fur have a distinct odor. Different fabrics are also affected differently by sweat and other bodily functions. Sweat lends most odor to synthetics and least to wool (Klepp et al., 2016; Rathinamoorthy & Thilagavathi, 2014). Synthetic fibers are therefor put through different chemical process to supress the development of smells. Materials also have a distinct smell, which we can like or dislike. The following is a quote from Kate’s dairy about the experience of smell when it comes to clothing:  

I am wearing a skin jacket made from reindeer hide and tanned with bark. It is light on my body, my shoulders, my arms, and it fills my nose with the scent of animal. The smell is full, strong and heavy. In a culture obsessed by cleanliness and fragrance, it is an odour of significance. It is a jacket marked in a way that synthetic ones never are – directly by a life, by a body that gave us its skin, by a heart of blood, the flex and taint of muscle. Does Friluftsliv have a smell? 

Hearing 

Both silence and noise are important aspects of friluftslivet (Faarlund 1992). When it comes to clothing this topic is most discussed in relation to hunting. Silent clothing is what differentiates hunting attire from other outdoor wear. But the sound clothes make is important for not only potential hunting prey.  

Woven fabrics make more noise than their knitted counterparts, and the sound is often an important and appreciated part of the fabric’s aesthetic. The rustling of a silk underskirt is well described in novels. Woven synthetic textiles such as Gore-tex jackets and trousers make a lot of noise. They rustle when movement makes the fabrics rub against each other. This became obvious on the trip where the film crew joined us. Instead of the birds surrounding us, all we could hear was their clothing. making it almost impossible to hear anything other than our own selves. Environmental philosophers might say that this is the root of the problem. We always put ourselves in focus. What is necessary for us to start dressing in a way that allows us to listen to the world around us and less to ourselves? The big portion of outdoor wear comprising of synthetics with water- and wind resistant properties contributes to putting ourselves in focus.

Conclusion

We have shown that friluftsliv does not gain a lot by the use of synthetics and on the other hand loses something by looking at how plastic effects out senses (sight, hearing, touch, smell) when out in nature. Outdoor wear contains more plastic (synthetic fibres) than other types of clothing. Synthetics fibres and the laminates that come with, create a literal barrier between us and nature. Sometimes this is what we want, other times not. Plastic is closely related to overproduction and waste generation due to low cost and easy production. The fibres are so strong that they outlast the wearer and keep polluting even when breaking down back to earth. The garments that we use to be safe and comfortable in nature also keep the nature away from us, raise a barrier between us and the world and do not fit into earth’s natural cycle.  

Environmental philosophers have long argued that the root of the environmental challenges we face is connected to our willingness to see ourselves as separate from nature (e.g. Plumwood, 1998). Therefore, it is possible to say that the synthetic fibres in clothing are the embodiment of techniques used to dominate and control nature, despite us being very much dependent on it and wishing to unite with it by the ways of friluftsliv. This paradox is at the heart of our work. 

References

Aall, C., Klepp, I. G., Støa, E., Engeset, A. B., & Skuland, S. (2011). Leisure and sustainable development in Norway: part of the solution and the problem. Leisure Studies, 30(4), 453-476. https://doi.org/10.1080/02614367.2011.589863  

Changing Markets Foundation. (2021). Fossil Fashion: The hidden reliance on fossil fuels. C. M. Foundation. http://changingmarkets.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/FOSSIL-FASHION_Web-compressed.pdf 

Classen, C., Howes, D., & Synnott, A. (1994). Aroma: the cultural history of smell. Routledge.  

Faarlund, Nils 1992. Støy og stillhet i Friluftslivet. SFT rapport 93:39. https://www.nb.no/items/URN:NBN:no-nb_digibok_2011011405039 

Klepp, Ingun Grimstad: syntetiske fibre i Store norske leksikon på snl.no. Hentet 29. desember 2024. 

Klepp, I. G., Berg, L. L., Sigaard, A. S., Tobiasson, T. S., Hvass, K. K., & Gleisberg, L. (2023). THE PLASTIC ELEPHANT:  overproduction and synthetic fibres in sustainable textiles strategies (SIFO-Project report 5-2023, Issue. https://hdl.handle.net/11250/3086387 

Klepp, I. G., Buck, M., Laitala, K., & Kjeldsberg, M. (2016). What’s the problem? Odor-control and the smell of sweat in sportswear. Fashion Practice: The Journal of Design, Creative Process & the Fashion Industry, 8(2), 296-317. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17569370.2016.1215117  

Klepp, I. G., & Haugrønning, V. (2021). Naturgarvet skinn i et miljøperspektiv. In: Forbruksforskningsinstituttet SIFO, OsloMet. 

Klepp, I. G., Laitala, K., & Rathinamoorthy, R. (2022). The Consumer Perception of Odour. In G. Thilagavathi & R. Rathinamoorthy (Eds.), Odour in Textiles: Generation and Control (pp. 1-13). CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003141426-1  

Klepp, I. G., & Skuland, S. (2013). The Rationalisation of Consumption Reasons for Purchasing Outdoor Recreational Outfits. In M. Vaccarella & J. L. Foltyn (Eds.), Fashion Wise (pp. 43-52). Inter-Disciplinary Press.  

Kounina, A., Daystar, J., Chalumeau, S., Devine, J., Geyer, R., Pires, S. T., Sonar, S. U., Venditti, R. A., & Boucher, J. (2024). The global apparel industry is a significant yet overlooked source of plastic leakage. Nature Communications, 15(1), 5022. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-49441-4  

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Overcoming barriers for “strong” sustainable consumption policy: the case of the Amsterdam Doughnut

Abstract

This case study of the Amsterdam Doughnut highlights how barriers for “strong” sustainable consumption policy pinpointed in the literature were to some extent overcome in the city policy of Amsterdam, the Netherlands, in the period of 2018–23. The study builds on interviews conducted in 2020 and 2023 with key stakeholders participating in the policymaking process, and on the analysis of relevant policy documents. It identifies a few factors that played a role as levers of the barriers mentioned in the literature. These factors facilitated the inclusion of upper consumption limits in a few policy areas at a conceptual and strategic level. However, resistance to “strong” sustainable consumption measures hindered their translation into concrete actions, targets, and implementation. Lastly, a change of emphasis in the city strategy towards the “social foundation” of the Doughnut Economy framework during the period under study led to a stronger focus on the lower levels of sufficiency, leaving the emphasis on the upper levels behind.

Click here to find the chapter (taylorFrancis.com).

Decentering Durability: Decarbonizing and Decolonizing Ideas and Practices of Long-Lasting Clothes

Authors: Kate Fletcher and Anna Fitzpatrick

Abstract

Durability is widely recognized as a key feature of materially resource-ful, lower-carbon clothing lives. Yet most of what is known about long-lasting garments is rooted in Euro-American ways of thinking, andreproduces its structures, priorities, values and resulting actions. Thispaper brings a decolonial concern to understandings of clothing durabil-ity to enlarge the conceptual boundaries around it, including those thatbreak apart dominant ideas and approaches to clothing durability inorder to show difference. It presents both the “workings” and the“findings” of a small research project, ‘Decentering Durability’, examin-ing both how research is conducted as well as what is uncovered at the intersection of decolonizing and resource-efficient, decarbonizing agen-das for fashion.

Click here for the full article (tandfonline.com) or contact the authors for a copy.

Studying clothing consumption volumes through wardrobe studies: a methodological reflection

Authors: Irene Maldini, Vilde Haugrønning and Lucrecia de León

Abstract

This paper introduces the relevance of volume-centric research in studies of clothing use. The global production of garments has grown dramatically in recent decades, bringing along significant environmental challenges. However, knowledge is lacking about why people deal with clothing quantities in such varied ways, and what leads some of them to overconsumption. A review of wardrobe research methods shows that there are various approaches to studying garments going in, around, and out of wardrobes. Gathering qualitative insights about specific garments, such as favorite garments, has been quite common. However, in order to advance knowledge about clothing consumption volumes, it is important to look at the wardrobe as a whole and include quantitative aspects. This paper reflects on what approaches and techniques can be used to that end. The reflections are combined with lessons learned from a pilot wardrobe study conducted in Uruguay, Portugal and Norway in 2022 with 20 respondents, concluding with recommendations for volume-centric methods in future wardrobe studies. Rigorous accounts of all garments owned should be combined with registration of items going in and out of the wardrobe over time in order to link accumulation to production and waste volumes. Methods connecting garment quantities with practices of daily use are particularly valuable. One example that has proven successful is piling exercises, a technique where participants are invited to categorize garments in groups according to specific criteria.

Click here to download and read the full article.

Click here to download and read the full conference proceedings (aalto.fi)

THE PLASTIC ELEPHANT: Overproduction and synthetic fibres in sustainable textile strategies

Authors: Ingun Grimstad Klepp, Lisbeth Løvbak Berg, Anna Schytte Sigaard, Tone Skårdal Tobiasson and
Lea Gleisberg

Summary

In this report, we examine national, international and corporate strategies for sustainable textiles to understand if and how they embrace the increased production volumes based on synthetic materials, which can be referred to as the ‘plastic elephant in the room’. This is done through a lens of four questions. First, we look at whether the strategies discuss growth in production volumes and possible measures to stop this growth. Second, we examine whether they address the plastification of textiles. By plastification, we mean the increasing share of plastic fibres used for textile production. Third, whether they discuss the raw material for plastics, and fourth, plastic waste. The results show that none of these questions that can reduce the environmental impacts of clothing production are given a central role in the strategies.

Click here to read the full report.

Natural and Sustainable? Consumers’ Textile Fiber Preferences

by Anna Schytte Sigaard  and Kirsi Laitala

Abstract

Textile fibers have become a major issue in the debate on sustainable fashion and clothing consumptionWhile consumers are encouraged to choose more sustainable and circular textile materials, studies have indicated that a reduction in production and consumption has the greatest potential to reduce the total environmental impact. This can be considered an ecocentric perspective with a focus on degrowth as opposed to a technocentric view where new technologies are expected to solve environmental problems while economic growth continues. Based on a survey in Norway (N = 1284), we investigate how the techno- and ecocentric perspectives impact Norwegian consumers’ fiber preferences and perceptions and the corresponding effects on their clothing consumption. We found that the majority of consumers preferred natural fibers compared to synthetic materials. This contradicts current market practices and the recommendations by material sustainability comparison tools such as the Higg Material Sustainability Index (MSI), where many synthetics receive better ratings than natural fibers. We also found that perceptions of high sustainability regarding fibers were negatively correlated with reduced consumption. Our study suggests that a continued focus on material substitution and other technological measures for reducing climate change will impede the move toward sustainability in the textile sector.

Click here to read the full article (mdpi.com).